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THE  EFFECT  OF  OIL  FUEL  ON  FIRE-CLAY 


REFRACTORIES 


BY 

WALTER  ALLOS  KOEHLER 

B.S.  University  of  Wisconsin,  1919 
Ch.E.  University  of  Wisconsin,  1920 


THESIS 

SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS 
FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF  MASTER  OF  SCIENCE  IN  CHEMISTRY 
IN  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  ILLINOIS,  1922 


URBANA,  ILLINOIS 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/detaiis/effectofoilfueioOOkoeh 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 


31»  -IQ2-2 


I HEREBY  RECO^L\lEND  THAT  THE  THESIS  PREPARED  UNDER  MY 


SUPERVISION  BY 


Wa 1 ter  Alios  Koehler 


ENTITLED THE  EFFECT  OF  OIL  FUEL  OH  FIFE -CLAY  REFRACTORIES 


BE  ACCEPTED  AS  FULFILLING  THIS  PART  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 


FHE  DEGREE  OF  .JjajB  teiL_Q£_Scl.enQ^ Jji  Cheinl  s try 


Charge  of  Thesis 


Head  of  Department 


Recommendation  concurred  in* 


Committee 


on 


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^Required  for  doctor’s  degree  but  not  for  master’s 


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TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Pa 

I.  SCOPE  OF  THE  THESIS  

II.  HISTORY  OF  FUEL  OIL 2 

III.  ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVMTAGES  OF  FUEL  OIL  3 

IV.  SOURCES  OF  OILS  AITD  THEIR  COLIPOSITIONS  --4 

V.  METHODS  OF  INVESTIGATION  5 

1.  Possible  causes  of  Deterioration  of 

refractories  used  with  oil  fuel  5 

2.  Preliminary  Investigations  6 

3 . Method  of  Investigation  Adopted  9 

VI.  FIRE-CLAY  REFRACTORIES  INVESTIGATED  10 

VII.  TESTS  AND  RESULTS 11 

VIII.  SUMMARY  OF  FIRST  EIGHT  RUNS Ip 

IX.  SUiatARY  OF  RUNS  NINE  AND  TEN 24 

X.  CONCLUSIONS 2p 

XI.  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 2? 


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I.  SCOPE  OF  ^ THESIS. 

The  use  of  oil  as  fuel  has  had  a phenomenal  grov/th  within 
the  last  few  years.  The  recent  y/orld  war  had  made  the  use  of 
liquid  fuel  imperative  where  excessive  cost  would  otherwise  have 
made  its  use  prohibitive.  The  Industry,  once  realizing  the  ad- 
vantages of  oil  fuel,  is  in  many  cases  continuing  its  use,  and 
extending  it  to  new  fields.  The  extensive  use  of  oil  fuel,  how- 
ever, has  brought  up  a new  refractory  problem.  W.H. Grants  calls 
attention  to  the  following  general  observations  on  refractories 
used  with  oil  fuel: 

1.  Side  wall  bricks  spall  and  drop  out  of  place,  thus  weak- 
ening the  wall. 

2.  Bricks  in  the  direct  path  of  the  flame  become  lifeless, 
disintegrate  and  fall  to  pieces  after  being  in  service  but  a short 
time . 

3.  Something  in  the  oil  flame  or  in  the  atmosphere  of  the 
combustion  chamber  glazes  over  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  bricks 
in  some  places  and  permeates  the  brick  in  others,  causing  dis- 
coloration and  probably  some  disintegration. 

4.  Some  bricks  are  badly  eroded  and  flame  cut  in  the  direct 
path  of  the  flame  while  others  of  approximately  the  same  refrac- 
toriness are  not  affected. 


iJour.  of  the  Amer.  Cer.  Soc.  4:390-2.  (May  1921). 


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He  further  adds  that  no  satisfactory  refractory  for  oil 
fired  furnaces  has  been  developed.  It  is  not  known  what  proper- 
ties a brick  must  have  to  make  it  suitable  for  oil  fired  furnaces. 

Ships  making  trips  from  New  York  to  SanFrancisco  have  to 
reline  their  boilers  at  the  end  of  each  one-way  trip  if  they  burn 
fuel  oil,  while  those  using  coal  can  make  repeated  trips  without 
relining  their  boilers'.  Likewise,  one  of  the  leading  railroad 
companies  of  the  West  finds  it  advantageous  to  import  fire  bricks 
from  England  for  their  oil  burning  locomotives,  but  it  is  not 
known  why  these  bricks  give  better  service  than  American  bricks 
do. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  thesis  to  set  forth  the  results 
obtained  in  studying  the  causes  of  the  disintegration  of  refrac- 
tory materials  used  in  oil  burning  furnaces,  together  with  pos- 
sible remedies. 

n.  HISTORY  OF  0^  FUEL. 

There  appears  to  be  no  record  of  the  exact  date  that  oil 
as  fuel  first  found  industrial  applications.  Kov/ever,  among  the 
first  installations  v/as  one  in  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  where  oil  fuel 
v/as  applied  to  boilers  in  a power  station  for  an  electric  rail- 
v;ays . The  first  installations  v/ere  crude  and  in  many  cases  un- 
satisfactory, and  the  method  of  burning  the  oil  v/as  uppermost  in 
the  minds  of  engineers  long  before  the  refractory  problem  became 

'A. F.G-reaves-V/alker , Discussion  at  the  Refractories  Division 
Amer.  Cer.  Soc.,  St.  Louis,  Feb.  27  - ^ar.  3,  1922. 

sw.N.Best;  The  Science  of  Burning  Liquid  Fuel,  1 (1915) • 


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vital.  As  methods  of  burning  became  more  perfectly  understood, 
oil  as  fuel  found  extensive  use,  until  nov/  it  is  used  in  station- 
ary boiler  plants,  locomotives,  steam  ships;  for  heating  build- 
ings, furnaces  of  all  kinds,  as  forge,  muffle,  and  melting;  in 
the  glass,  sugar,  metallurgical,  and  ceramic  industries. 

III.  ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  0^  0^  FUEL. 

The  extensive  application  of  oil  fuel  is  due  to  its  numer- 
ous advantages  over  coali.  Oil  has  a 50  per  cent  higher  calor- 
ific value  per  pound  than  coal  has,  and  the  efficiency  of  the 
furnace  is  I5  per  cent  higher  v/ith  oil  fuel.  The  boilers  can  be 
pushed  beyond  their  normal  rating  for  short  periods  of  time  more 
economically,  the  steam  can  be  held  just  below  the  blow-off  pres- 
sure more  easily,  and  the  stack  loss  is  less  on  account  of  the 
smaller  amount  of  air  necessary  for  combustion.  The  cost  of  hand- 
ling the  fuel  is  reduced;  fires  can  be  started  and  stopped  in- 
stantly; the  furnace  can  be  regulated  more  closely  and  with  prop- 
er combustion  there  is  no  smoke. 

Among  the  disadv8.ntages  may  be  mentioned  the  increased 
fire  risk,  the  danger  of  the  formation  of  explosive  mixtures  of 
the  oil  vapors  with  the  air,  the  tendency  of  valves  and  pipe 
joints  to  leak,  and  the  necessity  for  auxiliary  apparatus  for 
starting  an  oil  fire,  and  at  times  for  maintaining  it. 

However,  the  advantages  of  oil  over  coal  are  so  great, 
that  v/ere  it  not  for  the  steadily  increasing  prices,  and  the 

iThe  only  advantage  of  oil  over  gas  is  in  its  relative  cheap- 


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very  limited  supply,  the  oil  would  replace  coal  in  most  industrial 
fields.  In  fact,  the  advantages  of  oil  fuel  are  so  great  in  cer- 

I tain  fielo-s^  and  the  supply  is  so  limited^  that  some  who  have  made 
a study  of  the  matter  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  use  of  oil  fuel 
should  be  limited  to  those  industries  v/here  it  is  most  needed. 
Objection  is  made  especially  to  the  extensive  use  of  oil  fuel  by 
the  Navy  and  Merchant  Marine^ . 

IV,  SOURCES  OF  OILS  AND  TKEIR  COMPOSITIONS. 

The  oil  fields  of  the  United  States  may  be  roughly  divided 
into  four  fields:  (1)  the  eastern,  (2)  the  central,  (3)  the  west- 

ern,  (4)  and  the  mid-western.  The  oils  from  the  various  fields 
have  different  properties  and  compositions.  In  general,  the  east- 
ern oils  are  high  in  paraffin  base  and  low  in  asphalt,  while  the 
California  oils  are  high  in  asphalt  and  contain  no  paraffin. 

Table  I,  shov/s  in  a general  way  the  type  of  oil  furnished  by  each 
region,  while  Fig.  1 shows  the  distribution  of  the  important  oil- 
pools  of  the  United  States.  Roughly  speaking,  the  United  States 
and  Alaska  contain  one-sixth  of  the  world's  supply  of  petroleum*^. 

lAs  in  annealing  furnaces  where  close  regulation  is  necessary. 

®The  estimated  unmined  petroleum  in  the  United  States  is  about 

II  billion  barrels,  while  the  present  consumption  is  about  half  a 
billion  barrels  annually.  (Pogue:  The  Economics  of  Petroleum,  18). 

^W.N.Best:  American  Drop  Forger,  Aug.  1920,  "Burning  of  Liquid 
Fuel."  and  A. F.G-reaves -Walker,  Discussion  at  the  Refractories  Div- 
ision, Amer.  Cer.  Soc.,  St.  Louis,  Feb.  27  - Mar.  3,  1922. 

‘^Pogue:  Economics  of  Petroleum,  23  (1921). 


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5 


TABLE  li. 


State 

Sp . Gr . 

B.P.^C. 

^Paraffin 

% Asphalt 

/o'  Sulphur 

• Color 

Penn. 

0.792 

23 

2.8 

• • • • 

0.15 

Greenish 

browT!.. 

Col. 

0.830 

96 

2.5 

0.04 

0.3 

Dark  brown. 

La. 

0.890 

152 

0.35 

0.1 

0.33 

Dark  brown. 

Cal. 

0.940 

139 

1.48 

14.9 

3.3 

Black  and 
viscous . 

Naturally,  oil  from  each  field  presente  its  peculiar  prob- 
lems to  the  user,  and  that  from  one  field  may  be  suited  for  a par- 
ticular purpose,  v/hile  oil  from  another  field  is  unsatisfactory. 


V.  NETEOD  OF  INTESTIG-ATIOM. 

1.  Possible  Causes  of  Deterioration  of  Refractories  used 
With  Oil  Fu.el . In  the  few  references  in  the  literature  on  the 
subject  of  the  causes  of  the  disintegration  of  refractories  used 
with  oil  fuel,  and  in  personal  communications  to  Prfessor  Parmelee 
and  to  the  writer,  the  following  causes  have  been  suggested: 

(1)  Fine  droplets  of  oil  impinging  on  the  brick,  enter  the 
pores  and  are  there  ignited.  This  sudden  ignition  in  the  pores 
causes  the  formation  of  large  volumes  of  gases,  similar  to  minute 
explosions,  which  disrupt  the  brick. 

(2)  The  actual  temperature  of  the  flame  impinging  on  the 
Drick  is  above  the  fusion  point  of  the  brick. 

(3)  The  oil  has  a catalytic  action  on  the  brick,  causing 
it  to  disintegrate. 

IE. Butler:  Oil  Fuel,  28  (1914). 


(4)  Ingredients  in  the  oil,  such  as  sulphur  and  sodium  have 
■a  decided  fluxing  action  on  the  brick. 

(5)  The  sudden  thermal  shock  which  the  bricks  encounter 
v/hen  a furnace  is  started  and  v/hen  it  is  shut  dovai,  especially 
when  the  oil  is  turned  off  and  the  air  is  allowed  to  remain  turned 
on,  causes  the  bricks  to  spall. 

2.  Preliminary  Investigations . A search  of  the  literature 
reveals  very  little  on  the  matter  of  refractories  especially/  suit- 
ed for  use  v/ith  oil  fuels.  A number  of  v/riters  call  attention  to 
to  the  need  for  investigation  and  others  point  out  some  observa- 
tions made  in  connection  with  refractories  used  with  oil  fuel,  but 
it  appears  that  no  systematic  investigation  of  the  matter  has  been 
attempted  heretofore. 

It  \va.s  therefore  necessary  to  devise  a test  tha.t  would  in 
the  short  time  available  for  this  investigation  give  satisfactory 
results,  and  a large  part  of  the  tine  available  was  devoted  to  the 
problem  of  devising  such  a test.  It  may,  however,  be  added  tha^t 
the  method  finally  adopted  is  not  entirely  satisfactory  in  cases 
where  tests  must  be  made  in  relatively  short  perioo.s  of  time,  that 
certain  supplementary  tests  would  aid  in  the  investigation,  and 
that  some  of  the  methods  tried  and  abandoned  may  possibly  be  de- 
veloped into  satisfactory  methods.  These  earlier  methods  v/ill  be 
briefly  discussed  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

It  v/as  first  proposed  to  build  a testing  furnace  in  v/hich 
standajrd  nine-inch  bricks  could  be  tested  in  the  oil  flame.  Such 
a furnace  would  simultate  commercial  burning  conditions,  and 
would  permit  the  laying  up  of  a wall  in  the  furnace  of  the  bricks 
to  be  tested.  It  v/as  hoped  that  in  testing  various  types  of 


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7 


bricks,  that  it  would  be  possible  to  determine  v/hat  kind  of  bricks 
stand  up  best  and  from  them  determine  what  properties  a good  resist- 
ing brick  should  have.  It  v/as  however,  found  that  such  a furnace 
would  be  unsatisfactorily  large,  that  it  would  take  considerable 
time  to  construct,  and  that  on  account  of  its  size  it  v;ould  take 
a long  time  to  get  up  the  required  temperature,  and  as  a result  I 
t-his  method  was  abandoned.  ' I 

It  is  reported  that  in  the  carburetors  in  gas  plants,  that  I 

those  bricks  on  which  the  oil  impinges  at  high  temperatures  (1000°  I 
— 1100°C,)  disintegrate  v/ith  use  similarly  to  those  used  with  oil  as  I 
fuel.  It  v/as  decided  to  investigate  the  resistance  of  bricks  to  I 
disintegration  by  applying  this  method.  A wire  wouhd  (Nicbjrome)  I 
resistance  furnace  was  constructed  which  would  accomodate  small  I 
pieces  of  bricks.  The  furnace  v/as  heated  to  its  maximum  sa-fe  tem-  I 
perature  and  oil  v/as  dropped  on  the  brick  specimens  at  the  bottom  I 
of  the  furnace.  The  maximum  temperature  was  about  1050°C.  which  I 

was  found  to  be  too  low  to  get  noticeable  results.  Also,  the  fur-  l| 
nace  atmosphere  was  strongly  reducing  due  to  lack  of  air,  so  that  || 
the  specimens  soon  became  coated  with  a protecting  coating  of  I 

carbon.  It  was  considered  that  this  method  did  not  siraultate  in-  I 
dus trial  conditions  and  a new  method  was  devised.  An  oil  burning  I 
furnace  was  constructed  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  furnace  was  laid  I 
up  of  standard  fire-clay  bricks  and  was  lined  with  fire-cle.y  mor-  I 
tar  on  the  inside.  Bricks  A and  B on  the  roof  were  removable  for  I 
the  purpose  of  loading  and  unloading  the  furnace,  and  for  taking  I 

temperature  readings,  which  was  done  with  a Leeds  and  Northrup  I 

optical  pyrometer.  Exhaust  gases  were  allowed  to  escape  out  a I 
flue  C on  the  side  and  to  the  rear  of  the  furnace.  As  soon  as  the  I 


,^.'  a; 


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"'I 


a 

furnace  was  up  to  reel  heat  the  flue  was  closed  by  placing  a brick 
loosely  against  it,  which  caused  the  exhaust  gases  to  escape 
through  various  cracks  in  the  rear,  which  distributed  the  flame 
quite  uniformly  throughout  the  furnace.  The  atmosphere  of  the  fur- 
nace could  be  made  oxidizing  or  reducing  at  v/ill  by  regulating  the 
air  supply. 

The  air  pressure  was  taken  from  the  main  air  line  and  was 
reduced  to  ten  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  oil  pressure  was  equal 
to  a head  of  about  eight  feet,  plus  four  inches  of  mercury.  This 
combination  gave  very  satisfactory  results.  The  oil  used  vms  a 
gas  oil  which  is  a distillate  fuel  oil  obtained  from  the  Urbana 
Heat,  Power,  and  Light  Co.  The  burner  used  was  a "Dolecam"  donated 
by  The  Macleod  Co.,  Cincinnati,  0. 

In  the  first  tests  in  the  furnace,  specimens  were  cut  from 
bricks,  to  a size  approximating  a cylinder  one  inch  in  diameter  and 
four  inches  long.  This  size  was  taken  so  that  its  porosity  and 
volume  could  be  obtained  in  a Washburn-Bunting  Porosimeter.  The 
specimens  were  dried  over  night  at  105°C.  and  then  carefully  v/eigh- 
ed,  and  the  volume  and  porosity  determined.  The  specimens  were 
placed  in  the  furnace  and  heated  for  12  hours,  the  maximum  temper- 
ature of  1250*^C.  being  obtained  in  five  hours.  Y/hen  cool,  the 
specimens  v/ere  again  weighed  and  the  volume  and  porosity  were  again 
determined.  The  results  of  one  such  run  on  "Electric  Btirnace" 
fire-clay  bricks  is  given  in  Table  II. 

The  slight  change  in  v/eight  was  probably  due  to  deposited 
carbon,  for  the  specimens  appeared  distinctly  darker  than  they  were 
before  firing,  but  no  carbon  particles  could  be  detected  microscop- 
ically. The  change  in  volume  was  likewise  probably  due  to  carbon 


9 


on  the  exterior.  The  large  decrease  in  porosity  has  not  been  ex- 
plained but  is  characteristic  of  many  specimens. 

TABLE  II. 


Weight  of  specimen 
Volume  of  specimen 
Porosity  of  specimen 


Before  firing 
102  gr. 
45.5  cc. 
19.65  > 


After  flrlnp: 

102.9  gr. 

45.7  cc. 
14.4  i 


% change 
+0.8 
+0.44 
-26.7 


However,  some  of  the  specimens  to  be  tested  were  not  coherent 
masses  and  particles  would  drop  off  and  be  lost  in  handling,  so  that 
the  change  in  volume  and  weight  could  not  be  relied  upon  as  an  index, 
and  the  porosity  change  alone  v/as  considered  insufficient  as  a cri- 
terion to  determine  v/hich  specimens  withstood  the  oil  flame  best. 

As  a result,  the  method  was  still  further  modified,  and  in  this  mod- 
ified form  v/as  adopted  for  the  tests. 

3.  Method  of  Investigation  Adopted.  In  the  test  adopted,  the 
the  furnace  was  used  as  described  above,  but  the  specimens  were  pre- 

1 

pared  differently.  It  was  found  that  in  order  to  note  any  consider-  | 

I 

able  change  in  the  brick  specimens  after  the  brief  firing,  that 


microscopic  investigations  would  have  to  be  adopted  along  v;ith  the 
other  tests.  Small  specimens  of  brick  were  prepared  with  one  smooth 
face  which  was  polished  on  a lap  v/heel.  The  specimen  w’as  then  fired 
and  after  firing  was  examined  microscopically  and  compared  with  the 
other  specimens.  A magnification  of  40  and  50  diameters  was  used 
v/hich  showed  the  relative  fusion  on  the  specimen  surface  very  read- 
ily, when  examination  v/ith  the  unaided  eye  or  v/ith  a magnifying 
glass  of  9 diameters  would  show  no  action  at  all. 


Sif-'  ..V. 


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I 


10 


Yl-  fire-clay  refractories  iwestioated. 

The  fire-clay  refractories  investigated  were  donated  by  var- 
ious manufacturers  for  the  purpose.  A silicon  carbide  brick  was 
tested  along  v/ith  the  fire-clay  specimens  for  the  sake  of  compar- 
ison. The  brand  of  bricks  together  with  the  manufacturers'  names 
are  given  below.  In  recording  the  tests,  the  bricks  are  referred 
to  by  number  as  given  in  the  list. 

1.  "Hearth  and  Bosh."  Karbinson- Walker  Refractories  Co. 

2.  "Checker  Brick."  Parker-Russel  Mining  and  Manufactur- 

ing Co. 

3.  "Three  Star."  Parker-Russel. 

4.  "Acme".  Evans  & Hovmrd  Fire  Brick  Co. 

5.  "Electric  Furnace."  Chicago  Fire  Brick  Co. 

6.  "Laclede-St. Louis. " Laclede-Christy . 

7.  "Ajax."  Chicago  Retort  & Fire  Brick  Co. 

8.  "Munro."  Harbinson-Walker . 

9.  "Carbofrax."  (Silicon  Carbide)  The  Caroorundum  Co. 

10.  "Woodland."  Harbinson-Walker. 

11.  "10-21-S".  Harbinson-Walker. 


W: 


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11 

VII.  TESTS  MD  RESULTS . 

In  the  following  seven  rune  the  same  kind  of  "brick  specimens 
were  fired  under  very  nearly  the  same  temperature  conditions.  Smal] 
pieces  of  bricks  1 to  7 inclusive,  polished  on  one  face,  were  used 
throughout  the  tests.  The  specimens  were  placed  in  the  furnace 
about  12"  from  the  burner,  arranged  so  that  the  flame  Impinged  di- 
rectly on  the  polished  faces,  and  so  that  all  the  specimens  were 
subjected  to  the  flame  as  evenly  as  possible.  The  specimens  were 
placed  in  the  cold  furnace  and  the  temperature  was  raised  as  rap- 
idly as  possible.  It  was  not  possible  to  control  the  rate  of  heat- 
ing and  the  final  temperature  absolutely  in  each  case,  but  the  fol- 
lowing table  shov/8  the  approximation: 


T 

A 3 

L E III. 

Hours : 0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

12 

Deg.  C:  20 

400 

700 

900 

1020 

1120 

1200 

1250 

1250 

t furnace  was 

shut 

down  at 

the 

end  of 

twelve 

hours 

and 

after  : 

had  cooled  the  specimens  were  removed  and  compared  with  each  other 
and  with  the  unburned  sample. 

The  oil  used  was  the  same  as  mentioned  under  the  preliminary 
runs.  The  oil  was  not  analyzed,  but  analysis  by  tne  chemical  en- 
gineering department  on  oil  from  the  sarnie  source  shov/ed  that  the 
sulphur  and  sodium  in  the  oil  is  negligibly  small. 


I ■S''4'^''(f  ' ffi  V®  ^'< 


-*r*' 

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t*  f ' 


' ' ;'v 


12 


RUN  1. 

, In  this  run  the  specimens  were  run  under  normal  burning  con- 

ditions with  oil  as  received.  3y  "normal"  burning  conditions  are 
meant  those  which  give  maximum  heat  from  a given  amount  of  oil, 
v/hich  would  mean  theoretically  neither  an  excess  nor  deficiency  of 
air.  This,  hov/ever,  could  be  approximated  only. 

All  specimens  shov/ed  slight  fusion  under  the  microscope. 

This  could  be  detected  by  rounded  edges  and  glazed  appearance. 

There  was  little  variation  among  the  various  samples,  except  that 
No.  5 shovfed  slightly  more  fusion  than  the  others.  All  specimens 
became  darker  in  color  but  no  deposit  of  carbon  could  be  detected 
microscopically. 

RUN  No.  2. 

Practically  all  mineral  oils  on  the  market,  unless  specially 
purified,  contain  varying  amounts  of  sulphur  as  shov/n  in  Table  I . , 
the  amount  of  sulphur  varying  considerably,  running  to  above  six 
per  cent  in  some  cases.  A run  was  therefore  made  to  determine  the 
effect  of  sulphur  in  oil  on  the  refractories  used.  Carbon  bisul- 
phide was  added  to  the  oil,  equivalent  to  a sulphur  content  of  one- 
half  per  cent,  the  run  being  otherwise  the  same  as  No.  1. 

On  examining  the  specimens,  it  was  found  tnat  all  except 
Nos.  2 and  5 showed  fusion  action  more  than  in  the  runs  without 
sulphur.  This  tends  to  show  that  sulphur  in  oil  has  a fluxing 


action  on  the  bricks. 


^ . . ^^i9%iPC^ f * ^'T^gp ' • V .flHw»’  •«? . 


ti)  ■ '-Vf  .^ii***^ 


, A 

'f.  1 :t--' 


(5n,£;'OT 


»f^<^|it(^'  ^p.,^t;.--  .(f^jris-  ^;i  Wilts'S  ' 


6C 


*'i>  ' •■'■•  A ;.fi  S 


‘ij^,  • ) i *’■■&  X y~^  ' V > I 


V . ' •'  Vi.’ 0 ^,  ■ ■•^'-  ' ’'-y^  V,  m '?■*  ' •■ 

"'  vt  \‘.t.-  ',.*'*  _ **  ® , . .1  iU'illi  /' ' '. . U‘  iliTlBlO^"i  '*  ■ ''  f 


ll  ■ va;§:, 

j * ' ' I ^ * ' * ' I’ ' j * ' ' ^ ' * ^ r f ^ ^ '**  '1^  I j/j 

'■  ■'  ' SWiffjl'y:*'.  . .•>'f‘‘')>:s'S^  1'.  . ;,  v ;, 

r .i'  .* -t  yif7'.\'  >-v'S  "V  . .••  «W..  .*»’'.T»/.;?t  .'■••»  ■ -^-i  .^.'  r Ci 


• '^iV! 


|y 


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T. 


V'”—  , .j,- 


t > 'iJ 


y*  ' j^fr-  -i,J  '■'<’  . ■■  ly  y y.  ,^yV '' ■’ 

('.,  .y  ’■;■;■  \i<^rlr.  -<mi  ^ iy.: 

, n ^nVV'*Tjlfty4'''  k ■ ' ■‘  ' / Vi,  ..y  ■ x ySBfc'ii  y 

‘i  ' ' .XVy/i''  ^ 

u‘  i/i.  ‘ ■«•  .Cut'  .y'-0.i,'«4i£f/r-a.-'',  t/x  . ifjr;x  . ji 

: *'  * '■’  ■ ■•■  ■’■  - ■ 'ff-  ■"'■  ■•  . - ^".'''V'''v«y 

• ■ ’ i <ii-  <»|K»‘:’A"tv^'idir>-  *?y  ■ X-ii^  «4*»  i*.^4-. 

■ "'■  . ■.  y-wy  , *y  ■•«4^'.'';yy. 

t'M  Xpf..’'  ‘u/.«*ii'  lirM:^'’' ■xXyc-.‘yv;£.'JS  -^li^-’.-svy 


.,v 


J ,.>!■ 

' iy ' 


y.t.i  to  » :.♦  /‘Xo,,ry  ■•'j,vy;y«v*>!!y;  .«u;.  .:I4^' 

. ^-  yvQil  JKffl  . • - .-  ^ • .‘  . 


* i ' 

. 'I'l 


#• 

^ • >1  t»^ 


13 


RUN 

This  run  was  made  to  determine  the  effect  of  an  increased 
amount  of  sulphur  in  oil.  The  carbon  bishlphide  content  was  in- 
creased corresponding  to  a sulphur  content  of  1-1/2  per  cent.  The 
specimens  shov/ed  little  change  compared  with  those  of  Run  No.  2, 
except  that  specimens  No.  1 and  2 showed  a little  more  fusion. 

However,  the  specimens  in  Runs  No.  2 and  3 showed  a decrease 
in  toughness  over  the  unfired  samples,  the  decrease  becoming  more 
noticeable  in  Run  No.  3 than  in  No.  2.  The  decrease  was  also 
noticeable  in  Run  No.  1,  The  unfired  samples  broke  in  most  cases 
with  sharp  clean  fractures,  while  the  fired  samples  showed  numerous 
fine  cracks  throughout  when  broken  with  a hammer,  the  grog  sepa- 
rating from  the  bonding  material.  In  the  unfired  samples  (except- 
ing Nos.  3 and  4)  the  bond  held  the  grog  materials  quite  firmly  to- 
gether. In  ground  and  polished  sections  that  had  not  been  broken 
by  impact,  these  cracks  were  not  noticeable.  The  firing  had  appar- 
ently produced  a brittleness  v/hich  caused  numerous  cracks  when  the 
specimen  was  subjected  to  mechanical  shock. 

RUN  4. 

The  specimens  in  this  run  were  fired  similarly  to  those  in 
Run  No.  3 (1-1/2  io  sulphur)  but  were  fired  under  strongly  oxidizing 
conditions,  by  having  a large  supply  of  excess  air  in  the  combus- 
tion. The  specimens  were  all  of  a lighter  color  after  firing  than 
were  those  of  the  previous  runs,  but  shov/ed  more  fusion  than  those 
in  Run.  No.  1 to  but  a slight  extent. 


'1 


■v\.s- 


■ 'S.  -.1K 


X.  i 


w 


■ '•.  ' ■;  .'  • yf  ’ ."  ■■'  . , "f  '■'  •*’•  • -,i,  "S  ‘ •■’%  ,!- ’ ■^'■i.jB 


W' 


i-C'  *.j.- 

’ - 


\ fipinirV  . t i.  :^.  ; f ,4-  # 

ia(-i)f.^:.®*fflr»:''!^  !1  .ti* 'if 


l.,4 


f .■ 

^Vv'- ’'s 


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V; .. 


: m 


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Hi- 


|Vj;:’i&/^^'  ' .?■  \",  V’.ir-  ,',.  ',  ■•■  •',■  'h'*,'!'  •’•'  ’•«>’►  ..'.  • ■'  ■]J',‘  ■'••i''®j«'  •’•''K' 


S(^2i  L/t«  wqjSS  a^4r.(^j?M;iJ5=  ^Cy.»  vt'Jj 


•%'■  ■ ’ ^ 

I '•  ■m" 


‘*'''  ■ *■  .f-  " '(  Ji-i  " '''''""^  ■’  ' *^'  i j ^ [ -'I'i  I I -'Y  '" 


f arr<N',«'  ^,4c 


K 


tr  ■ ; » j ■ . 


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.1  ’W.jv*'  ar4'*  ;*-.-*y;.ii«&ij8'^^ 

ji  ^ i ' ■ ' ^.'4 

. ^iL-j 

. ■.  * ‘^v'lj's;. '.■  ^ -ir^.  ' > ' . .;  ‘^.VS 

♦ ^ ^covtX’iifc'  x'A  ,.  -^dr*- 

I™'.,:-’'  ."’  ‘ I •■  A.  :''■!,  V!  ■•;•  •'  ,'  ■;  • . ;’«j  .,  fj' ' '■ 


'‘;"j 


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< f ; ^i.  !r*i. 


h . 


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ct:/  7 .tawV 

f ■■.ii'fl.-'  '."«.;jli,«  1^  ' ' ' . ";•'  'o" 


■'H 


r - ' 7 V 

■■■■  . . • ," 


14 


RUN  5 

This  run  v/as  similar  to  Run  No.  3 hut  the  specimens  were  fired 
under  strongly  reducing  conditions.  All  specimens  became  consider- 
ably darker  than  those  in  previous  runs,  and  specimens  No.  2 and  7 
showed  more  fusion  than  they  did  in  Runs  No.  1 and  4. 

RUN  No.  6. 

In  this  run  the  specimens  were  fired  under  alternating  oxid- 
izing and  reducing  conditions,  one  hour  each,  the  oil  as  in  the 
previous  run  containing  1-1/2  per  cent  sulphur.  All  specimens  ex- 
cept No.  6 showed  shov/ed  considerable  fusion,  more  so  than  in  any 
previous  run. 

RUN  7. 

In  this  run  the  sulphur  content  of  the  oil  was  increased  to 
5 per  cent,  the  specimens  being  burned  under  normal  burning  con- 
ditions. There  was  no  noticeable  increase  in  fusion  over  the  1-1/2 
per  cent  sulphur  content  under  normal  burning  conditions,  except 
that  No.  7 showed  slightly  more  fusion. 

RUN  8. 

Some  fuel  oils,  especially  those  from  the  Oklahoma  region, 
contain  sodium  salts  and  a run  was  made  with  oil  containing  sodium. 
The  sodium  was  introduced  as  sodium  benzoate,  an  amount  being  added 
equivalent  to  O.O5  gr.  NagS04  per  100  gr.  oil.  The  specimens  were 
fired  under  normal  burning  conditions.  All  specimens  showed 
fusion  on  the  surface,  more  so  in  general  than  in  any  of  the  pre- 


L^',  U,  Ml  ‘'ti 


•&  ' ' -V"'  • 5.V 'Aj'i 


®r’’”v  r “ * ; I ; :^ 


■•'■a 

jte.; 


'I^' 


impW 


^.0  ‘ 


i.liJSi-. 


i'iVfV' 


i'v'  a I 


'tfl> 


<f- 


".^■:„.v;:« 


t*r^  ; • 4''.  , ■ - ‘ •;  ■*  ■ ' ’ ■ v’i‘.::^f)^jM 


J > v<Ft;ya , 

: „ ; ■ ■‘®v'(^i>Rtoirf'^ 


, 7.--  , h'  •'  • . . 

'■  .i»’ 

"■®  1 ' ' 'lis  i * 


..sit. . w 


r. 


.'  ,'  . ‘ -f  ■ ■ ’ . ' , ■ -T.V'V  ' ■ 


\*^>''/-\-^>\,,li  'iJ.Ji^\\x/r-  ' ■ J,i>  i..;  ;■'■  V.\-t^  2^^;^  i'--'fctt.’'  M,:  ^if|^  -1 

1‘  ^ ' aiVV7;'..^  ,'"■  ^ ' . ' ' ,?1 

■‘  ' f/-^f'  >-*  *^fwcJ4^,  f*“  ,^«  i'iif^^.rir.ii'  iv-.  r 4 


'..  ‘ '.'  . •'  ' W."  -%4 

» 4 U •■  . ■ ,ii'  J.'« 


il> : . t^if  rh  f I i /;,(.^  ^ ^ J j/ff 

' •'''  ‘ mSI 


15 

vious  runs,  showing  that  sodium  does  have  a decided  fluxing  action 
on  the  bricks. 

Specimen  Ho.  9 was  included  in  Runs  No.  5,  6,  7,  and  8,  and 
showed  practically  no  fusion  or  other  change  in  any  of  the  runs,  ex- 
cept that  in  this  last  run  there  was  a slight  glazing  action  on  the 
surface. 

VIII  SUMMARY. 

Before  recording  the  remaining  runs,  which  were  conducted  in 
a somewhat  different  manner,  and  in  which  different  data  were  obtained 
a summary  of  Runs  1 to  8 will  be  given. 

1.  All  specimens  fired  in  the  oil  flame  with  oil  as  received, 
showed  fusion  action  on  the  polished  surfaces. 

2.  Oil  containing  one-half  of  one  per  cent  sulphur  produced 
a greater  fusing  action  than  oil  containing  practically  no  sulphur. 

3.  Oil  containing  1-1/2  to  5 per  cent  sulphur  showed  no  great- 
er fusing  action  on  the  specimens  than  did  the  oil  containing  one- 
half  per  cent  sulphur. 

4.  Specimens  burned  under  oxidizing  conditions  showed  no 
greater  fusion  than  those  burned  under  normal  burning  conditions. 

5.  Specimens  burned  under  reducing  conditions  shov/ed  no 
greater  fusing  action  than  those  burned  under  normal  burning  con- 
ditions. 

6.  Speciiaens  burned  alternately  under  oxidizing  and  reducing 
conditions  showed  more  fusing  action  than  those  burned  under  entirel 
oxidizing  or  entirely  reducing  conditions. 

7.  Oil  containing  sodium  showed  more  fusion  action  than  oil 
containing  sulphur. 


-V,. 

■ . . ..*.iK>-*.s‘; 


i 


i»y  • 1 . 


'.i't'Oi 


■<{;'■' fir 

*'-■  ^-*;'l!B<k 


\ ,.  f;V. 


» I'V/  - 


At  f 


. ■;  ,Vi:>-.\  . t 'Kff' '•^’^ 

V ■ -■  ’*  ‘'■*-  ''  '* 

• ■"  ' ' ''U  ■ 

, " V I , i:: ,^v)  t 


<^‘  « 


i , a<j 


to.  J. 


' J.  '.t  'i.  *.  ^ 


.,  • I „v ' -t *-=.“. •'*•  ' 0 ;.' 


r 


i 


r 


*.M.i  i:.'.4Vi. 

r fy. 


•i/.iC  i 


s 


. < r 


: :.,0 

< ir.j;  •;t'vr'- 


: XU 


'r'i'.j<j  ^^  ‘‘hr  irwoirl  <.:•  j 


.fw6. 


16 


8.  All  oil  fired  bricks  became  friable  and  would  crack  easily 
under  impact  as  compared  with  the  unburned  samples,  the  amount  of 
friability  apparently  increasing  with  the  sulphur  content. 

RUN  9. 

In  the  preceding  runs  a series  of  tests  was  made  on  various 
specimens  by  burning  them  under  varying  conditions.  Run  No.  9 was 
made  specifically  for  the  purpose  of  getting  better  comparative  re- 
sults among  the  various  specimens.  The  length  of  firing  was  increas- 
ed to  48  hours,  the  temperature  was  increased  to  1300*^0  and  specimens 
1 to  11  were  included  in  the  test. 

The  specimens  were  cut  from  bricks  to  a size  approximating 
cylinders  one  inch  in  diameter  and  four  inches  long.  One  end  of  each 
cylinder  was  polished.  The  specimens  were  laid  in  the  furnace  ’ ’ ^ 
with  the  polished  ends  toward  the  flame  as  shovm  in  Fig.  2,  where  D 
represents  the  specimens.  The  run  was  made  with  oil  as  received 
under  normal  burning  conditions. 

All  specimens  were  v/eighed  and  their  volumes  and  porosities 
were  determined  before  and  after  the  run. 

A.  Fusion.  The  follov/ing  observations  were  made  in  regard  to 
the  fusing  action  on  the  specimens.  The  numbers  refer  to  the  brick 
specimens  as  recorded  on  page  10. 

1.  The  surface  shov^ed  considerable  fusion  microscopically  al- 
though when  examined  with  the  unaided  eye  there  was  no  apparent 
fusion.  Red  blotches  indicated  the  fluxing  action  of  iron  particles 
which  were  not  noticeable  before  firing.  The  interior  of  the  spec- 
imen did  not  show  the  the  same  color  change  but  showed  a denser  struc 
ture’  ■'  than  the  surface  exposed  to  the  combustion  atmosphere. 


,.  ,.^\  ^ ■ ■'''  ..y  j;.^  ' ;,i  , _ i^V,  •:'""  ' ' J : . ;r...  ‘4^J 


F4W  ' *1 


. ,a»‘ ■■  ■ ’-^L:  -»-.  ■ .«  ’ '^'•/ /’'KiJiStl./  ’ r.' 


,’  ;,JT  ;^;  /'i  : V|f 


y!b-^t  m^u 

'""j  ' ' **  *'  *'  " ' f "4  ' ' ;'  ^ ^ '■  ' , , ' 


•*4''fe/' 

’1,1 


V 

i" 


iiM  4 , 


"■j’-ciry: 


w^v  .' ■ ».■' ‘ i*'  ''ji^  ^■^''■^.'  .^'s  ■' 

Ki‘.-A  ♦ ,’  ;Vf.\  F^K,  .fiiirit’  >fi^’' 

^ " 'f’fi  'ff  '■  L,  ™'"'  'I  ■ ' i'.'  / (<’■''  ' • ' % mM 

^ ^ y ^ ‘.i  fi  ' *^'^'-  j . ' : ^IL 

* ^ A * >>ifS la ''vf'**'  , -i. 


'C 


*•  '^^^/,S'U*i;^rV»o*ffri/ ' 4i^iX*it'’;  ; i»Oi«V4*'a  •^'’X  # 

Ik  ' •'  ^ ' • V'l  • . • 1 ^ 


K F 


lsf.4^;-.rrc‘ii  Pv  i h^yttooia  ^ 

' .-,,^v,  • :•!:  ■ ; "‘  ' ’ , '.: '.'''  . ^ 

8..1^-,,';swi»i4V-‘^i  ait;2^  ^ it  1:^^'  \m^:m-i'€u  tfo 


myy 


^ . . , 'i.  ■ ; , -^  • . ■>  - .w:  ‘ 


b ii  J’XtrT  '<h.'wittD  sff  ,/' 


•/W  0<f  J kfOilJi 


17 


2.  This  specimen  showed  more  fusion  than  did  No.  1,  and  a 
clear  glassy  surface  could  be  detected  on  the  polished  surface.  The 
interior  of  the  specimen  did  not  shov/  the  same  extent  of  fusion  and 
as  a result  the  pores  on  the  interior  seemed  to  have  remained  more 
open. 

3.  The  change  over  the  unfired  specimen  was  not  as  noticeable 
as  it  was  in  Nos.  1 and  2,  but  the  interior  showed  considerable  den- 
sification. 

4.  The  change  in  this  specimen  v/as  very  much  like  that  in  No.  3 
except  that  it  became  very  much  darker  in  color. 

Nos.  3 and  4 being  of  an  open  coarse  structure  did  not  show 
the  change  during  firing  very  well  for  it  was  impossible  to  polish 
any  surfaces  and  any  fusing  action  could  not  be  readily  detected. 

5.  This  specimen  showed  considerable  fusion  on  the  surface 
and  shov/ed  a decided  darkening  of  color.  There  appeared  to  be  no 
great  densif ication  in  the  interior. 

6.  The  specimen  showed  very  much  fusion  on  the  surface  and  a 
great  deal  of  densif ication  on  the  interior.  The  original  sample 
was  quite  granular  and  would  not  take  a polish,  but  after  firing, 
the  specimen  became  firm  and  took  a very  high  polish. 

7.  This  specimen  also  showed  a great  deal  of  fusion  on  the 
surface  and  densif ication  in  the  interior  and  was  in  general  like 
No.  6. 

8.  This  specimen  showed  less  fusion  than  the  others  and  little 
densif ication  in  the  interior.  The  original  sample  v/as  of  a light 
cream  color,  but  the  fired  sample  was  very  dark,  more  so  than  any  of 
the  others . 

9.  This  specimen  showed  fusion  on  the  surface  to  a small  ex- 


n 3 

• <‘,  ,^l 
^ ^ .V 


. ;'*  '4i  ' ■’^'3 


r . 

o,  W . "iUl 


'4\  ''  ■'*■•■■?*  r VI 

".V>. 


ii 

‘-^ifi-  -i'  ' ' , , ^ , 


1 i.  '•  . ftf»  , tf, «iW  «a  l<j-'.'’^ji$W'-i^ 

■ ' .'•.v.^u-^o-  .‘!7i  :®liL'i 

I • f '♦•'•' "AiiMihffck  '*  nV*,n»^i^  r.ili»i,  ■•  *■/.  JJL’rt 


\PX 


.o 


T‘i' 


■ • ’ i'.oq  ‘4 JiJ  r.-«itltic<ifc*'‘w4H 

‘ « I . ^ ' ’ k' . ' - »^f  * \j#X  i 

. r <■  ' ■'  ' t "''*0|'  't,' 

If 

v;:  -’HJi ’ 

! ■'  -c  ^ -^:  ‘ 'r42ii.ivaTX/,.f^Jt^^yi<^  .7;'^,i:t  ,.j  &-■  ^4' 

^•.  ^'■T-iW'W  * ' £niJl 


■ .K  " 


' s: 


jfoW^  r;  «li[i‘rtt‘/i4fi'.  •»/(^'  f a^-  lv;'9/orl’»  >. 


r • > 


«>  .s*l 


io‘ yjy  r.M-jit‘‘ yV  ‘■•:r.  *3.*ivY  i‘,r.  :.,ir.ri 


if 


'lit 


' ,Cr7^a^< 


18 


tent  but  no  change  was  detected  in  the  interior. 

10  and  11.  These  specimens  being  made  of  a coarse  grog  bond- 
ed together  but  loosely,  it  was  difficult  to  detect  noticeable  fus- 
ion on  account  of  the  lack  of  a polished  surface. 

B.  Volume  Changes.  The  volumes  of  the  specimens  v;ere  deter- 
mined before  and  after  firing  by  means  of  the  Washburn-Bunting  por- 
osimeter.  The  values  given  are  correct  to  0.1  cc. 

TABLE  IV. 


No. 

A 

B 

% Change 

1 

32.8 

31.8 

-3.05 

2 

27.4 

27.3 

VO 

o 

1 

3 

33.8 

31.1 

-8.0 

4 

30.2 

29.3 

-3.0 

5 

40.5 

37.5 

-7.4 

6. 

34.4 

31.9 

-7.3 

7 

33.7 

31.5 

-6.5 

8 

33.5 

34.9 

+3.9 

9 

58.0 

57.9 

(-0.17) 

10 

40.6 

38.6 

-4.9 

11 

28.0 

27.8 

-0.7 

= Volume  in  cc . 

before 

firing. 

= Volume  in  cc. 

after 

firing. 

The  values  in  parenthesis  show  variations  within  experimental 
error  and  may  be  considered  as  zero. 


19 


Weight  Cha.nges . The  v/eight  changes  were  very  small  in  all 
cases,  and  as  the  weights  were  taken  to  an  accuracy  of  0.1  gr.,  the 
per  cent  changes  are  not  very  significant  but  the  values  as  obtained 
are  given  below. 


TABLE  V. 


No. 

A 

B 

/o  Change 

1 

67\  4 

670 

-0.15 

2 

61.2 

61.2 

0 

3 

67.8 

67.6 

-0.5 

4 

64.7 

64 . 65 

0 

5 

85 . 65 

85.48 

-0.2 

6 

68.6 

68.4 

-0.5 

7 

70.5 

70.35 

-0.2 

8 

73.2 

73.05 

-0.2 

9 

125.2 

126.5 

+ 1.0 

10 

76.55 

76.2 

-0.5 

11 

52.55 

52.2 

-0.67 

A = Weight  in  grams  before  firing. 

B = Weight  in  grams  after  firing. 

It  can  be  assumed  in  general  that  in  all  cases  there  was 
practically  no  weight  change,  but  that  the  tendency,  if  any,  was 


downward . 


20 


Porosity  Chanf^es . The  porosity  chanses  show  the  greatest  var- 
iation. The  values  were  obtained  v/ith  a Washburn-Bunting  porosiraeter 
and  include  surface  porosity.  The  values  are  accurate  to  within 
about  0.5  per  cent,  and  give  the  porosities  in  percent  of  the  total 
volume. 

TABLE  VI. 


No. 

A 

B 

'/o  Change 

1 

16.51 

14.63 

-11.35 

2 

17.5 

7.77 

-55.5 

3 

26.55 

12.3 

-54.4 

4 

23.92 

17.2 

-35.5 

5 

21.2 

13.1 

-38.2 

6 

26.0 

13.75 

1 

o^ 

• 

7 

21.0 

13.55 

-35.5 

8 

19.72 

14.86 

-24.7 

9 

11.55 

10.76 

- 6.75 

10 

24.85 

19.4 

-22 . 0 

11 

27.5 

22.3 

-18.9 

A = per  cent  porosity  before  firing. 
B = per  cent  porosity  after  firing. 


For  purposes  of  correlation,  the  last  column  of  each  of  the 


preceding  tables  is  given  in  Table  VII 

TABLE  VII. 
No.  Volume  Change  7/eight  Change 

• 

Porosity  Change 

1 

-3.05^ 

-11.35;^ 

o 

f V 

-0.36 

0.0 

-55.5 

3 

-8.0 

-0.3 

-54.4 

4 

-3.0 

0.0 

-35.6 

5 

-7.4 

-0.2 

-38.2 

6 

-7.3 

-0.3 

-46.2 

7 

-6.5 

-0.2 

-35.5 

8 

+3.9 

-0.2 

-24.7 

9 

-0.17 

+1.0 

- 6.7 

10 

-4.9 

-0.5 

-22.0 

11 

-0.7 

-0.67 

-18.9 

R U N No.  10. 

Some  of  the  specimens  in  Run  9,  showed  exceptionally  large  de- 
creases in  porosity  and  it  was  decided  to  make  another  with  ga-s  for 
comparison  to  cover  some  of  these  specimens.  The  specimens  were 
fired  in  a gas  kiln,  but  under  the  same  temperature  conditions  as 
were  the  specimens  in  Run  9,  a-s  far  as  it  was  possible  to  dupliCc^te 
them.  In  general,  the  temperature  in  the  gas  kiln  T;as  forty  degrees 
lower  (1260‘^C.  instead  of  13500'^G.)  but  during  the  last  four  hours 
the  temperature  v/as  about  1320*^0 . 

After  firing,  the  specimens  appeared  noticeably  different 
from  the  oil  fired  ones.  There  was  very  little  fusing  action  on  tne 


a*-. 


j-;'-.r».;J’;:^<9^  v r./  •.■  ci 


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■ • r ' ■;  •“ 


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22 

surface  of  the  specimens  and  the  internal  densif Ication  appeared 
very  much  less.  In  general,  the  specimens  appeared  to  have  DeeiT; sub- 
jected to  a much  less  severe  heat  treatment  than  were  the  correspond- 
ing specimens  of  any  of  the  other  runs.  The  v/eight,  volume  and  por- 
osities were  also  noticibly  different  in  most  Instances.  These  val- 
ues are  recorded  in  the  following  tables. 


TABLE  VIII. 

voluivIe; 

CHANGES 

DURING  FIRING. 

No. 

A 

B 

C 

2 

39.4  gr 

38.4  gr 

-2.5^ 

3 

46.0 

33.9 

-26.3 

6 

45.3 

34.9 

-23.0 

7 

42.4 

30.6 

-27.8 

TABLE  IX. 

VEIG-KT  CEANG-ES  DURING-  FIRING. 

No. 

A 

B 

C 

2 

95.6  gr 

89.6  gr 

-6.3^ 

> 

77.7 

72.2 

-7.1 

6 

72.2 

71.6 

-0.85 

7 

68.2 

67.8 

-0.56 

TABLE  X. 

POROSITY 

CHANGES 

DURING  FIRING. 

No. 

A 

B 

C 

2 

16.75 

9.85>« 

-41. 0> 

> 

26.35 

16.05 

-39.7 

6 

26.0 

20.6 

-20.8 

7 

21.0 

14.8 

-29.5 

Volume,  weight, 

and  porosity  before  firing. 

V o lume , v/e  i gh t , 

and  porosity  after  firing. 

C = Volume,  v/eight,  and  porosity  changes  during  firing. 


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H'  I.*  ’ 


In  ord-BP  to  conips.pe  the  volume,  v/eight,  and  porosity  changes 
of  the  oil  fired  specimens  with  the  gas  fired  ones,  these  values  ex- 
pressed in  per  cent  change  are  grouped  in  Table  XI. 

TABLE  XI. 


No. 

Volume 

Chanf^e 

Weight  Change 

Porosity 

Change 

0 

G 

0 

G 

0 

G 

2 

-0.56>' 

-2.5% 

o 

• 

o 

-e.yj. 

-55.5;^ 

-41.0^' 

3 

‘8.0 

-26.3 

-0,3 

-7.1 

-54.4 

-37.7 

6 

-7.3 

-23 . 0 

-0.3 

-0.85 

-46.2 

-20.8 

7 

-6.5 

-27.8 

-0.2 

-0.56 

-35.5 

-29.5 

0 = Changes  during  oil  firing. 
G-  = Changes  during  gas  firing. 


Specific  Gravity  Changes . True  specific  gravities  were  de- 
termined of  specimens  2,  3,  6,  and  7:  as  received,  after  oil  firing 

(Run  9),  and  after  firing  in  the  gas  kiln  (Run  10).  The  specimens 
were  ground  in  a diamond-steel  mortar  to  pass  a sixty-mesh  sieve, 
weighed  in  a 25  cc.  specific  gravity  bottle,  whose  volume  had  first 
been  accurately  determined  by  v/eighing  full  of  boiled  distilled 
water.  The  ground  specimen  in  the  bottle  v/as  covered  with  air-free 
distilled  water  and  exhausted  under  a bell  jar  to  almost  v/ithin  the 
vapor  pressure  of  v/ater  (20  mm.).  This  removed  practically  all  the 
adsorbed  air  and  allov^ed  the  v/ater  to  fill  the  voids  between  the 
particles.  The  bottle  v/as  then  removed  from  under  the  bell  jar, 
filled  with  water  according  to  the  usual  method  and  weighed. 

The  values  obtained  are  given  in  Table  XII.  There  seem  to 
be  no  systematic  variations,  and  the  variations  do  not  correspond 
to  any  of  the  other  data  observed,  and  no  conclusions  are  drawn  from 


them . 


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24 


TABLE 

XII.  TRUE 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES. 

No . 

A 

0 G 

2 

2.660 

2.627  2.685 

3 

2.675 

2.641  2.636 

6 

2.643 

2.650  2.652 

7 

2.646 

2.630  2.641 

A = Specific  gravity  of  specimen  as  received. 

0 = Specific  gravity  of  specimen  after  oil  firing. 

G = Specific  gravity  of  specimen  after  gas  firing. 

IX.  SUI^^^ARY  OF  RUNS  NO.  9 aM  10. 

1.  All  specimens  showed  a decrease  in  the  porosity  during 
firing.  Those  specimens  having  an  open  porous  structure  shov/ed  the 
greatest  change  in  porosity. 

2.  All  specimens  except  one_,  showed  a decrease  in  the  volume 
during  firing,  out  the  change  in  volume  does  not  appear  to  he  con- 
nected directly  with  the  porosity  change. 

3.  The  weight  change  in  the  oil  fired  specimens  was  practic- 
ally nil. 

4.  The  gas  fired  specimens  showed  a smaller  decrease  in  por- 
osity than  the  corresponding  oil  fired  ones. 

5.  The  gas  fired  specimens  showed  less  fusion  than  the  oil 

fired  ones . 


-a 


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X.  CONCLUSIONS. 


25 


Considering  the  relatively  short  time  that  has  been  avail- 
able for  this  investigation  and  the  great  scope  of  the  work,  it  can 
readily  be  seen  that  far  reaching  conclusions  cannot  safely  be 
drawn.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  this  investigation  is  pio- 
neer work  and  that  considerable  time  has  been  taken  up  in  develop- 
ing a method  of  investigation.  However,  the  data  obtained  seem  to 
give  some  indications  of  the  manner  in  which  oil  fuel  attacks  the 
bricks,  and  v/hat  type  of  bricks  best  withstand  the  action  of  the 
flame. 

Any  large  decrease  in  the  volume  of  a brick  on  firing,  is  a 
decided  disadvantage,  for  it  opens  up  spaces  between  the  bricks, 
breaking  up  the  smooth  v/all  so  much  desired  in  furnace  linings,  and 
exposing  edges  of  the  bricks  which  are  much  more  readily  attacl^ed 
by  the  flames.  A zero  volume  change  is  the  ideal,  and  this  was 
approached  in  specimens  S,  9,  and  11.  Tv/o  and  11  are  not  ver^^ 
dense  bricks,  contain  considerable  coarse  grog,  but  are  fairly  well 
bonded  together.  It  may  be  concluded  that  from  the  point  of  least 
volume  change,  coarse  grog  is  desirable. 

A fusing  action  on  the  brick  may  not  be  undesirable,  provid- 
ed it  is  a surface  action  only.  However,  Run  9 shov/ed  that  in  most 
cases  where  surface  fusion  was  greatest,  the  internal  densif ication 
was  also  greatest.  A brick  that  v/ill  soften  throughout,  will  give 
a sagging  and  bulging  v/all  and  give  unsatisfactory  service.  The 
relative  fusing  action  on  the  bricks  could  not  be  determined  vfith 
as  great  precision  as  some  of  the  other  data,  and  there  seems  to  oe 


hi  v <- 

L ■ t ' 


26 


no  uniformity  with  the  texture  of  the  bricks  and  relative  fusing 
action. 

The  fusing  action  was,  however,  closely  linked  up  with  the 
change  in  porosity  which  could  be  determined  much  more  accurately. 

All  specimens  showed  a decrease  in  porosity  during  the  firing,  and 
Runs  9 and  10  show  that  the  oil  does  have  a greater  effect  in  this 
respect  than  does  gas.  This  shows  that  change  in  porosity  is  not 
merely  due  to  temperature  alone.  The  greatest  decreases  in  poros- 
ities are  shown  in  specimens  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  Nos.  2,  4,  and 
to  some  extent  5,  contained  considerable  coarse  grog,  but  No.  6 and 
especially  No.  7 contained  much  fine  grog,  which  indicates  that  por- 
osity changes  are  not  dependent  on  grog  sizes.  Least  porosity 
changes  are  shown  in  specimens  No.  1 and  9.  No.  1 contains  a con- 
siderable amount  of  coarse  grog,  but  is  firmly  pressed,  leaving  few 
pores.  No.  9 is  a dense  silicon  carbid.e  brick.  The  specimens  show- 
ing the  least  porosity  decrease  are  those  which  had  the  lowest  por- 
osities before  firing.  A well  pressed  brick  of  dense  structure  seems 
desirable  in  reducing  the  porosity  change. 

It  was  noticed  in  several  specimens  that  the  bricks  became 
friable  and  "dead”  . This  v/a.s  especla.lly  noticeable  in  those  having 
a high  porosity,  that  is,  those  with  the  greater  amount  of  open 
structure.  The  pores  give  the  oil  droplets  an  opportunity  to  enter 
into  the  inner  structure  of  the  bricks,  where  their  sudden  combus- 
tion, probably  akin  to  minute  explosions,  tend  to  break  up  the  bond- 
ing material  of  the  bricks.  A dense  firm  brick  seems  to  be  highly 
desirable  as  a refractory  to  be  used  v/ith  oil  fuel. 

Sulphur  in  the  oil,  even  in  small  amounts,  causes  considerable 
fusion  and  seems  to  increase  the  friability.  It  appears  that  1/2 


’^v^wPBi^.-  . ■'  ■v'■^|^v:,-^w■v,pl?^'^vJ^;.',  vcv’’«v''iivrv. ^ 


tit:  %p‘  i?oi«'i:ta(rf^<Sali»^»  -.3^>KH5«*5im:“-^ 

vA;.:fe.  '.  ._  Iff.'  , :.■  I-i.  V'' 


- ■ ’^,.'-‘.'.<1^  ' ' ■ .'  “'^^J  . ' .."  * ....  r Sti#*' 'A >-  i>¥..tV'-k  ■ i*.  it'j.'.aj’tt'r.ji  :■■ 


-OT'O.' i ..^fr'ao*4:lI5!^('|(i  ^ 

’ ''•■■.•  ' a-''  ''Vm 

sa iS.Wi’.'*!*"-"  "'i^  /(^i^il.'iir'iSdiwiJ 

V -'^.  * . IT  . -'.•.... 


>.t.^ 


oji% 'a'.itii4':#43  -.|:»irwf ' 

’ ■ '*-.•  -t  * ' ‘ .f  • ' * ■ »0  ’ * f-  ^;'’,  ' ' ^'  - '■" 


• r ■ , • r ’•  •••■  ■•  ..  .'.■v-'’-  >■  . * .'  •.  ‘ff  ■ ^ 1 

, , ^ V 'v-^  . v.O-.'.f  ■•  '.  ••  ' 

citk) 

oj  dtbi/o' rXoi'tc  xiXi  /.  . to 

' ' ■ 'T-m-  ^ ■■  . .■  . . ■ 

. fetrx  XXo  al<i-i 

j«'i>iii4^^iP*®  I'i  ft’viVA  ",  ».io  <»/tJ  r't  J 


'.t\|  tcii^  > c'x;>ac;A'V  i I . H .:ci’ul»ir  5a »*r’5(f X ogr  j>  .io^r.a  , 


/• 

f’ 


. ^ « 


27 


per  cent  sulphur  is  as  harmful  as  higher  amounts  as  far  as  the  fus- 
ing action  is  concerned,  but  higher  amounts  seem  to  increase  the  fri- 
ability. For  oil  to  be  used  as  fuel,  the  sulphur  content  should  be 
kept  negligibly  small. 

Sodium  increases  the  fluxing  action  on  the  bricks  consider- 
ably, but  appearstto  have  no  other  effect,  but  the  fusing  action  of 
a very  small  amount  of  sodium  is  very  noticeable.  Sodium  salts 
should  be  eliminated  from  fuel  oil  as  completely  as  possible. 

Oxidizing  or  reducing  conditions  in  the  furnace  appear  to  have 
no  effect  different  from  normal  burning  conditions,  but  alter- 

nating oxidizing  and  reducing  conditions  seem  to  disintegrate  the 
specimens  more  rapidly.  This  shows  the  importance  of  having  the  oil 
and  air  supply  regulated  very  closely,  and  especially  of  having  their 
pressures  constant  throughout  the  operation  of  the  furnace. 

AGKN0\7LEDGIi[ENTS . 

This  thesis  v/as  conducted  under  the  direction  of  Professor 
C . V/.Parmelee  and  it  is  due  to  his  extensive  acquaintance  with  the 
refractory  problems  and  the  cooperation  that  he  obtained  v/ith  vs.rious 
manufacturers  and  others  acquainted  with  the  problem  that  this  work 
v/as  made  possible. 

Specific  acknowledgment  is  also  due  to  the  manufacturers  who 
supplied  bricks  for  the  tests.  The  names  of  the  manufacturers  and 
brands  of  bricks  supplied  is  given  on  page  10.  The  follov/ing  man- 
ufacturers loaned  or  donated  oil  burners  for  use  in  the  tests; 

The  Hacleod  Company,  Cincinnati,  0. 

Joseph  Reid  Gas  Engine  Co.,  Oil  City,  Pa. 

John  Forest  & Sons,  Bayonne,  N.J. 


I 


